The book The Evolution of management thought

The book The Evolution of management thought In his comprehensive book The Evolution of Management Thought Daniel A Wren writes: Within the practices of the past there are lessons of history for tomorrow in a continuous stream. We occupy but one point in this stream. The purpose .. is to presentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the past as a prologue to the future. Broadly it has been classified into : 1.Scientific management theory 2.Administrative management theory 3.Behavioral management theory 4.Management science theory 5.Organizational environment theory I. PRE SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT ERA à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢I. Ever Since Down Of civilization. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢-Administration of mohenjodaro harappa Cities Of ancient aryan in 2000 B.C. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢-Buddha order and the sangha à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢-Organizations of public life in ancient greece. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Organisation of roman catholic church. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Organisation of military force à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢SECOND HALF OF NINETEENTH CENTURY à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Use of management Principles in business. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Robert Owen-1813 :-Development of mgmt Concepts. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Factor which influence the productivity of personnel in plants. Adam Smith (18th century economist) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Observed that firms manufactured pins in one of two different ways: Craft-style-each worker did all steps. Production-each worker specialized in one step. F.W.TAYLOR AND SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT The systematic study of the relationships between people and tasks for the purpose of redesigning the work process for higher efficiency. Defined by Frederick Taylor in the late 1800s Wanted to replace rule of thumb Sought to reduce the time a worker spent on each task by optimizing the way the task was done. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth Studied fatigue caused by lighting, heating, and the design of tools and machines. Time and motion studies Breaking up each job action into its components. Finding better ways to perform the action. Reorganizing each job action to be more efficient. ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT THEORY The study of how to create an organizational structure that leads to high efficiency and effectiveness. Rules formal written instructions that specify actions to be taken under different circumstances Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) specific sets of written instructions about how to perform a certain aspect of a task Norms unwritten, informal codes of conduct that prescribe how people should act in particular situations BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT THEORY The study of how managers should behave to motivate employees and encourage them to perform at high levels and be committed to the achievement of organizational goals. Focuses on the way a manager should personally manage to motivate employees. Mary Parker Follett   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Concerned that Taylor ignored the human side of the organization Suggested workers help in analyzing their jobs lf workers have relevant knowledge of the task, then they should control the task. MANAGEMENT SCIENCE THEORY An approach to management that uses rigorous quantitative techniques to maximize the use of organizational resources. Quantitative management utilizes linear programming, modeling, simulation systems and chaos theory. Operations management -techniques used to analyze all aspects of the production system Management Information Systems (MIS) provides information vital for effective decision making. Total Quality Management (TQM) -focuses on analyzing input, conversion, and output activities to increase product quality. ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT THEORY The set of forces and conditions that operate beyond an organizations boundaries but affect a managers ability to acquire and utilize resources Open System A system that takes resources for its external environment and converts them into goods and services that are then sent back to that environment for purchase by customers. There is no one best way to organize The idea that the organizational structures and control systems manager choose depend on-are contingent on-characteristics of the external environment in which the organization operates. What is management? The term management encompasses an array of different functions undertaken to accomplish a task successfully. In the simplest of terms, management is all about getting things done. However, it is the way and the process of how one achieves ones target or goals and it is in this respect that management is considered an art and a science as well. The term management may be recently defined, but it existed at a time when men started learning the art of organizing, strategizing (during wars) and/or simply planning. At the core of it, management was quintessentially considered as an art of managing men and hence the term manage-men-T. Management is like investment. Managers have resources to invest their time, talent and, possibly, human resources. The goal (function) of management is to get the best return on such resources by getting things done efficiently. This doesnt imply being mechanical or narrowly controlling as some writers on management suggest. The managers style is a personal or situational matter and it has evolved over time. With highly skilled and self-motivated knowledge workers, the manager must be very empowering. Where the workforce is less skilled or not very motivated, the manager may need to monitor output more closely. Skilled managers know how flex their style, coach and motivate diverse employees. Getting things done through people is what they do. By saying that management is a function, not a type of person or role, we can better account for self-managed work teams where no one is in charge In a self-managed team, management is a group effort with no one being the designated managerAnd much later, management scholar, Peter Drucker (1993) defined management as Supplying knowledge to find out how existing knowledge can best be applied to produce results is, in effect, what we mean by management. But knowledge is now also being applied systematically and purposefully to determine what new knowledge is needed, whether it is feasible, and what has to be done to make knowledge effective. It is being applied, in other words, to systematic innovation. (Drucker, 1993) Today the importance of management from an organizations point of view has increased multi-fold. It is only through effective management that companies are developing and executing their businesss policies and strategies to maximize their profits and provide with the best of products and services. Management today combines creative, business, organizational, analytical and other skills to produce effective goal-oriented results! Some of the key functions in management includes learning to delegate, planning and organizing, communicating clearly, controlling situations, motivating employees, adapting to change, constantly innovating and thinking of new ideas, building a good team and delivering results which are not just figure -bound but results that also focus on overall growth and development. Management focuses on the entire organization from both a short and a long-term perspective. Management is the managerial process of forming a strategic vision, setting objectives, crafting a strategy and then implementing and executing the strategy. A good management style is a blend of both efficiency and effectiveness. There is no point in acting efficiently if what you are doing will not have the desired effect. Management techniques can be viewed as either bottom-up, top-down, or collaborative processes. Management is an organizational function, like sales, marketing or finance. It doesnt necessarily mean managing people. We can manage ourselves or the material assigned to us at work. If you managed a project very well on your own, it would mean that you did the job in a well-organized, efficient manner, making good use of all resources at your disposal. In India, largely the top down approach is popular. In the top-down approach, the management makes the decisions, which the employees have no choice but to accept. On the other hand, in the bottom-up approach, employees submit proposals to their managers who, in turn, funnel the best ideas further up the organization. However the bottom up approach is not a very popular approach in India as most of the Indian businesses are family run businesses. Management as art scientific principles and theories will be able to implemented in actual managerial situations. Instead, these managers are likely to rely on the social and political environment surrounding the managerial issue, using their own knowledge of a situation, rather than generic rules, to determine a course of action. For example, as a contrast to the example given previously, a manager who has a problem with an employees poor work performance is likely to rely on his or her own experiences and judgment when addressing this issue. Rather than having a standard response to such a problem, this manager is likely to consider a broad range of social and political factors, and is likely to take different actions depending on the context of the problem. Henry Mintzberg is probably the most well-known and prominent advocate of the school of thought that management is an art. Mintzberg is an academic researcher whose work capturing the actual daily tasks of real managers was ground breaking research for its time. Mintzberg, through his observation of actual managers in their daily work, determined that managers did not sit at their desks, thinking, evaluating, and deciding all day long, working for long, uninterrupted time periods. Rather, Mintzberg determined that mangers engaged in very fragmented work, with constant interruptions and rare opportunities to quietly consider managerial issues. Thus, Mintzberg revolutionized thinking about managers at the time that his work was published, challenging the prior notion that managers behaved rationally and methodically. This was in line with the perspective of management as an art, because it indicated that managers did not necessarily have routine behaviors throughout their days, but ins tead used their own social and political skills to solve problems that arose throughout the course of work. Another scholar that promoted the notion of management as an art was David E. Lilienthal, who in 1967 had his series of lectures titled Management: A Humanist Art published. In this set of published lectures, Lilienthal argues that management requires more than a mastery of techniques and skills; instead, it also requires that managers understand individuals and their motivations and help them achieve their goals. Lilienthal believed that combining management and leadership into practice, by not only getting work done but understanding the meaning behind the work, as effective managerial behavior. Thus, he promoted the idea of the manager as a motivator and facilitator of others. This manager as an artist was likely to respond differently to each employee and situation, rather than use a prescribed set of responses dictated by set of known guidelines. Another proponent of the management as art school of thought is Peter Drucker, famed management scholar who is best known for developing ideas related to total quality management. Drucker terms management a liberal art, claiming that it is such because it deals with the fundamentals of knowledge, wisdom, and leadership, but because it is also concerned with practice and application. Drucker argues that the discipline (i.e., the science) of management attempts to create a paradigm for managers, in which facts are established, and exceptions to these facts are ignored as anomalies. He is critical of the assumptions that make up the management paradigm, because these assumptions change over time as society and the business environment change. Thus, management is more of an art, because scientific facts do not remain stable over time. Managing is one of the most important human activities. From the time human beings began forming social organizations to accomplish aims and objectives they could not accomplish as individuals, managing has been   essential to ensure the coordination of individual efforts. As society continuously relied on group effort, and as many organized groups have become large, the task of managers has been increasing in importance and complexity. Definition: Management is the art, or science, of achieving goals through people. Since managers also supervise, management can be interpreted to mean literally looking over i.e., making sure people do what they are supposed to do. Managers are, therefore, expected to ensure greater productivity or, using the current jargon, continuous improvement. Management is not easy. It is not an exact science. In fact, it is seen as an art that people master with experience. Managing your businesss most vital assets is too important to leave to chance.People who believe management is an art are likely to believe that there is no specific way to teach or understand management, and that it is a skill borne of personality and ability. Those who believe in management as an art are likely to believe that certain people are more predisposed to be effective managers than are others, and that some people cannot be taught to be effective managers. That is, even with an understanding of management research and an education in management, some people will not be capable of being effective practicing managers. Practicing managers who believe in management as an art are unlikely to believe that scientific principles and theories will be able to implemented in actual managerial situations. Instead, these managers are likely to rely on the social and political environment surrounding the managerial issue, using their own knowledge of a situation, rather than generic rules, to determine a course of action. For example, a manager who has a problem with an employees poor work performance is likely to rely on his or her own experiences and judgment when addressing this issue. Rather than having a standard response to such a problem, this manager is likely to consider a broad range of social and political factors, and is likely to take different actions depending on the context of the problem. The perspective of management as an art assumes to some extent that a manager has a disposition or experiences that guide him or her in managerial decisions and activities. Thus, with this perspective, many managers may be successful without any formal education or training in management. While formal management education may promote management as a science,many development efforts support the notion of management as an art. To cultivate management talent, organizations offer mentoring, overseas experiences, and job rotation. These activities allow managers to gain greater social and political insight and thus rely on their own judgment and abilities to improve their management style. Much of mentoring involves behavior modeling, in which a protà ©gà © may learn nuances of managerial behavior rather than a set of specific guidelines for managing. Overseas experiences are likely to involve a great deal of manager adaptation, and the general rules by which a manager might operate in one culture are likely to change when managing workers in other countries. Finally, job rotation is a technique that requires a manager to work in a variety of settings. Again, this encourages a manager to be flexible and adaptive, and likely rely more on his or her personal skill in manag ing. Management actually more of art than science. A huge part of Management is leadership, and no matter how many books and courses you take on the subject, if you dont have it in you, then the best you can be is a poor manager. On the flip side, a manager, even with the right innate skills, can make a lot of obvious mistakes if he didnt study well.   Management as science Science can be defined as any skill or technique that reflects a precise application of facts or a principle.. In practice, management as a science would indicate that managers use a specific body of information and facts to guide their behaviors, and that management as an art requires only skill and no specific body of knowledge,. Management Science deals with development and application of the concepts and models in case of any issues and solves managerial problems. The models are usually represented mathematically, but sometimes a few other methods such as computer-based, visual or verbal representations are also used. Believers of management being a discipline of science believe that there are ideal managerial practices available for certain situations. A manager who believes in the scientific principles, when encounters a managerial dilemma has got the view that there must be a rational and objective way to determine the correct course of action. It is possible that the manager will adopt the general principles and theories and also by creating and testing hypotheses. For example, when the employees performance is poor then the manager assumes that certain principles will work in most situations and reacts accordingly to the issue. The concept may be something learnt from a business school or through any f ormal means of training that the person might not consider other factors such as the political and social factors involved in the situation. Many early management researchers opined that managers are like scientists. The first theory that served subscribed to the vision of managers as scientists. The scientific management movement was the primary driver of this perspective. Scientific management, by Frederick W. Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, and others tried to discover the one best way to perform jobs. The theory was published in Taylors monographs, Shop Management (1905)] and The Principles of Scientific Management (1911).The main aim was to bring in a theory to evaluate and organize work in order to get the optimum efficiency and effectiveness. The pig iron is the best illustrative of the scientific management theory. The load was split into lots weighing 92 pounds each, known as the pig. On an average 12.5 tons were loaded onto the rail cars by the workers but Taylor believed that it could be increased to 47 or 48 tons per day and as he had believed it completely worked. The following result was achieved by Matching the skill sets of the workers with that of the task that is required to do. Clear instructions are being provided for the workers on how to perform each of the tasks and it was ensured that the the instructions were being followed. Equal division of labour between the workers and the management. The employees were then motivated by providing them with a significantly higher daily wage. It was believed that the shop floor by 200% through the following principle. The theory of scientific management was adopted throughout the world including France, Russia and Japan. McDonalds has been successfully adopt the principles of Scientific Management into its system in the areas of bonus systems, the mutual understandings with the workers and systematic training provided The theory completely created a paradigm shift in the understanding the psychology of workers thus reducing the efficiencies to a very large level. Management, like other sciences has its own principles, laws, generalization which is universal in nature and can be applied to various situations. But management could not be treated in the same way as the other sciences are being treated, the sole reason being that management deals with people and it is very difficult to predict human behaviour accurately. Therefore, it can be said that management falls under the category of Social Sciences. Management has taken a giant leap in this century. Many are of the misconception that the scientific method will provide solutions to all problems but managers must understand that they must contend with the uncertainties that cannot be removed by the scientific endeavour. With the era being an era of science and technology, it is quintessential that we understand their importance. It is inevitable that every business involves some amount of scientific and technological systems. Management is a science as the scientific principles and rules (such as Taylors theory of scientific management and Webers conception of social and economic organization) that have been devised can be applied for improving productivity. Management as technology What is managementWhat is technologyAre these two related somewayIs technology good or bad These are some basic questions that we shall try to answer to understand this concept of management as technology Technology is the scientific methodology and the materials used to achieve certain goal or solve a particular problem. Management is the process of getting activities completed efficiently and effectively with and through other people. In laymans words, Management is to manage the man, money machine and technology helps in better management In todays world everybody is using technology in some way or the other whether knowingly or inadvertently. Technology is everywhere around us; in our homes, in our offices etc. The role of technology becomes even more important when it comes to the application of various functions of management. Todays business scenario is extremely fast, dynamic and full of uncertainties. Todays managers cannot afford to waste time on getting information ,then analysing it, then concluding results out of that raw information and then executing plans .Thus .here comes technology to his rescue. Technology makes it faster, far more efficient and easy for the managers to get results out of pieces of information and then formulate and execute plans and in turn generate profits for the business. But the question is How does technology do it and what technologies are available? A lot of technologies are available today to help out managers to take fast and effective decisions as well as expand their businesses. With the help of technology various software tools have been designed to manage all types of help desk customer service related tasks. It allows you to centrally record, track, update proactively manage customer service CRM related tasks, issues projects by allowing you to create, customize and automate workflows processes. Technology is designed to create, optimize automate business process based upon the customers requirement. It delivers complete transparency control to manage different workflows approvals for all types business enterprises. Technology allows organizations to proactively manage issues. Technology provides simple, easy to use, customizable web-based business management tools.   Technology management can also be defined as the integrated planning, design, optimization, operation and control of technological products processes and services, a better definition would be the management of the use of technology for human advantage. Today technology is used in every section of management whether it is marketing management, production operation management, human resource management, finance management or systems management. Project management is also the important part of technology management. Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific project goals and objectives.   The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals and objectives while honoring the preconceived project constraints. Typical constraints are scope, time, and budget. The secondary challenge is to optimize the allocation and integration of inputs necessary to meet the pre-defined objectives. Some tools that are used in the Organizations are :- Online business networking Networking is a marketing method by which business opportunities are created through networks of like-minded business people. Businesses are increasingly using business social networks as a means of growing their circle of business contacts and promoting themselves online. In general these networking tools allow professionals to build up their circle of business partners they trust. By connecting these business partners the networking tools allow individuals to search for certain people within their network. Since businesses are expanding globally, social networks make it easier to keep in touch with other contacts around the world. Specific cross-border e-commerce platforms and business partnering networks now make globalization accessible also for small and medium sized companies. Social networking websites like LinkedIn.com, Facebook.com are some technologies that help businessmen meet each other online and remain in contact from any part of the world. Sharing of ideas and thoughts Blogs and certain websites like Twitter.com etc are some technologies which provide a platform where people can share their thoughts and present their opinions. Database management and data mining Today no longer we need any books etc to maintain data and records because today we have online database management systems which not only record our data but we can also query out information very fast and effectively. Data mining is the process of retrieving useful patterns out of data stored in the data warehouses which helps managers to analyze data and take quick decisions from the patterns. ERP Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is an integrated computer-based system used to manage internal and external resources, including tangible assets, financial resources, materials, and human resources. It is a software architecture whose purpose is to facilitate the flow of information between all business functions inside the boundaries of the organization and manage the connections to outside stakeholders. Built on a centralized database and normally utilizing a common computing platform, ERP systems consolidate all business operations into a uniform and enterprise-wide system environment. In the absence of an ERP system, a large manufacturer may find itself with many software applications that cannot communicate or interface effectively with one another. ERP systems connect the necessary software in order for accurate forecasting to be done. This allows inventory levels to be kept at maximum efficiency and the company to be more profitable. Integration among different functional areas to ensure proper communication, productivity and efficiency Design engineering (how to best make the product) Order tracking, from acceptance through fulfillment etc. Thus, we just now learnt about some technologies that the managers have at their disposal to help them out perform critical managerial functions. So, now we can certainly say that yes management and technology go hand in hand and without technology, management would become too difficult. Modern Management Theories and Practices Management thought has been evolving and redefining itself . There have been three phases of development during the process The Classical Approach, The Human Relations Approach and the contemporary approaches. The classical approach just emphasized the importance of production and administration process within the organization. The Human Relations Approach elucidated the importance of maintain human relations and thus adhering to sound practices in order to achieve the harmony. The contempropry approaches laid importance on the social systems, the decision making process and the application of quantitative methods. These are often grouped together as modern approaches. The classical management approach, developed during the Industrial Revolution, suggested the development of standard methods for doing jobs and the people were trained and they worked like machines. Every person had his own specialized work and he had to do it. This approach accentuated the work element and did not see the workers as human beings but machines. As management became more sophisticated, there was a shift from the era of production or the stress on production to punctuation on human relations. The Hawthrone experiments clearly indicated that apart from the working conditions and the physiological state of the workers, there were other factors influencing the productivity. George L. Mayo postulated these factors as social and psychological in nature. Recent Developments in Management Theory The recent developments in the management theory have been the Systems Approach, Situational or Contingency theory, Chaos theory, and Team Building theory. The Systems Theory: A system is looked at as having inputs (e.g., raw materials, funds, and human resource), processes (e.g., planning, organizing, motivating, and controlling), outputs (products or services) and outcomes (e.g., enhanced quality of life or productivity for customers/clients, productivity). According to this approach, the four aspects of the system is inter connected and this can be used to determine patterns and events. The Situational or Contingency Theory: This theory postulates that all aspects of the situations must be taken into account when managers make a decision. For e.g. if one is leading a military troop, then an autocratic style or a bureaucratic style must probably be adopted, whereas in the case of a medical facility, a more participative and facilitative leadership style will be more suitable. The Chaos Theory: This theory suggests that systems naturally tend to go complex and hence will lead to more volatility and instability. Thus inorder to maintain a balance, it is important to exert more energy. This trend continues until the system splits and falls apart entirely. Manager must be able to effectively scrutinize and take care so that mishaps dont happen. The Team Building approach: This theory postulates that team building is the essence of providing quality circles, best practices, and continuous improvement within the organization. This theory also elucidates that the reduction of levels of hierarchy or flattening of the system will bring in more effectiveness. Consensus management is the essence of the theory that is involving more people at all levels in the process of decision-making. MODERN MANAGEMENT PRACTICES The basis of Modern Management Practices are based on Leadership and Commitment, Business Planning and Risk Management, Control Systems, Performance Management, Accountability Management Leadership and Commitment: Open-door management style, strong management board, good relationship with staff, importance in the area of values and ethics are all the prerequisites of Modern management. The Senior Financial Officer and the staff play a strong leadership role in the organization and participate in all major business decisions. Business Planning and Risk Management Strong linkage exists between business planning and management accountability agreements. This is achieved by setting well defined the corporate strategies and priorities.

Compare and contrast the views of Autumn in Ted Hughes’s There Came A E

Compare and contrast the views of Autumn in Ted Hughes’s There Came A Day and John Keats’s Ode To Autumn. How do the poets use language to convey these views? There are many similarities and differences between the two autumn poems ‘There came a day’ by Ted Hughes and ‘Ode to autumn’ by John Keats. Both poems are based on autumn but they portray it in different ways. ‘There came a day’ presents autumn in a negative way where as ‘ode to autumn’ presents it in a positive way. The reason that John Keats may have written in a in a positive way about autumn is because he was a pre-twentieth century poet and had a love for nature and respect for the countryside. The style in which he writes is known as ‘romanticism’, which is when the poet writes from a personal view, rather than based on facts. Ted Hughes was a twentieth century poet and wrote in a slightly different way to John Keats. He knew a lot about nature and was fond of animals and plants. This could explain why he felt autumn is a harsh and ruthless season, because it symbolises decay and the end of most plant life until spring. We can tell from the title of John Keats’s poem ‘Ode To Autumn’ that it is a positive poem, and obviously about autumn. The title means ‘to praise autumn’ which implies that it is going to be about the good aspects of the season. However, in Ted Hughes’s ‘There Came a Day’ there is a sense of anticipation and fear about the day. From the title we cannot tell that the poem is about autumn but it is more negative. In the opening stanza of ‘Ode to Autumn’ the first few lines set a bright and colourful introduction to the poem. It talks about autumn as a season of mist and mellow fruitfulness. From this we know that it is a... ...rsonal tastes and styles. John Keats was a pre-twentieth century poet, so the vocabulary used in his poem was very old fashioned and traditional. We can tell this from the following words and phrases â€Å"thou hast’’ and â€Å"thou dost†. Ted Hughes was a twentieth century poet, so his writing and use of language is more modern, phrases such as â€Å"stuff them† and â€Å"plucked it† imply that it is a more recent poem. The two poems have many differences and only a few similarities. I believe there to be so many differences to be because of the different time period that the two poets lived in because John Keats’s poem is more traditional and Ted Hughes’s is modern. It is also because of the different style they write in and their own personal points view about autumn. Although I feel the similarity between the two poems is that both poets show their individual feelings.

Role of The Tannery in the novel Nectar in a Sieve Essay -- essays res

Question: What role does the tannery, in Rukmani’s city, have throughout the book? Explain. Also, be sure to discuss what effect it had on the people. In almost every novel, there is at least one culprit or menace. He or she usually causes problems and in more exciting works, ends up murdering one of the protagonists. Hence, in the erratic novel Nectar in a Sieve, which is set in India during the early 1950’s, there has been a troublemaker, just hidden and extremely indirect in his actions. â€Å"What’s his name?† one might ask. The answer: the tannery. This corporation alone forces Rukmani and her husband Nathan off their land, takes away Rukmani’s sons, and ultimately, kills her husband. By being the culprit in the book, the tannery symbolizes many important things such as how the area is changing and those who can’t adapt will flounder such as what happens to Rukmani and Nathan. The tannery shows India’s economic situation as well. The more businesses, the faster India’s economic structure will form, resulting in more political power for the country, but deteriorating the crop li fe. Lastly, the tannery depicts how farm life in India is slowly fading away and those who can not find other skills will fade away too. A major corporation opening in a small town is a sign that the tides are changing and if one can not keep up, he will drown. This is certainly the case in Nectar in a Sieve, being that the tannery opens up in Rukmani’s city. At the time, Rukmani and Nathan have no other skills than tilling the fields and when the tannery buys their land, they were left awestruck as to what their next move should be. Rukmani always had a hunch since the start of the book that the tannery would lead to their end. This quote shows that... ...ry provides stable wages and hope for promotion. This is more secure than working in a farm because even if there is a drought or the crops go bad, workers still earn a constant rupee a day to support their family. The tannery opening up in Rukmani’s small city and the steady rush of workers depicts how farm life in India will decrease in the next century. Rukmani overcame many hardships in the novel but her fight with the tannery is a loss. The tannery ultimately defeats her and takes away her husband. Alas, readers typically overlook the tannery as being the antagonist in the novel even though it frequently infuriated the lives of Rukmani and Nathan. Everybody has at least one tannery in their life, be it their boss, friend, coworker or even parent. Being able to overcome your mental tannery would grant you success in life, something Rukmani could never achieve.

Comparing How Two Short Fiction Writers Effectively Convey a Common Theme Essay

â€Å"A Visit of Charity† by Eudora Welty and â€Å"The Use of Force† by William Carlos Williams are both engrossing short stories featuring two young female characters who must face an ailment. Eudora Welty touches on a social ailment, using an indifferent teenage girl as takeoff point, and portrays the abandonment of the elderly in a home that is as cold as the treatment they are subjected to. On the other hand, Williams tackles a physical ailment, and he depicts how a medical practitioner will go to great lengths not to neglect his duty, even if he encounters resistance. Welty takes on a serious, somewhat mocking tone, while Williams is thoroughly amusing and almost comical, yet very realistic. In Welty’s short story, a teenage named girl Marian is the protagonist who temporarily leaves the confines of her cloistered existence to visit a home for the aged to fulfill a requirement for Campfire Girls, a group that seeks to develop character in the young.   Instead of gaining the expected social benefits from the visit, Marian ironically develops great uneasiness and retreats. Both short story titles reflect their themes and plot, although the titles may have other implications. â€Å"Visit† in Welty’s short story implies Marian’s fleeting and superficial encounter   with elderly women in the institution. Another possible meaning of the title, â€Å"A Visit of Charity† is that in the world of   apathetic young people, there may be an instance when life offers an opportunity to look beyond themselves and show helpfulness or compassion for fellow human   beings. The title may be seen then as a case of Charity paying Marian a visit by offering her the opportunity to help or give solace or relief to the needy.    Being young and preoccupied with her personal agenda, though, she fails, as most young people do, to enrich herself from a special opportunity to reach out and be of service to others. As for â€Å"The Use of Force† by William Carlos Williams, the title at first glimpse conjures a serious or frightening situation like the application of brute force, a common subject in many literary works. In â€Å"The Use of Force† by Williams, we see instead the firm hand   of a physician who responds to the call of duty as he overcomes the temporary setback of an unwilling and naughty, young patient who resists him. The setting, characters, events and situations in both short stories come alive through the use of vivid language. When Welty describes the home for the aged as   having walls that bounce off † the winter sunlight like a block of ice† (Welty 245) and corridors that â€Å"smell like the interior of a clock† (Welty 246), she lets readers in on the pitiable plight of the elderly women who endure not just the poorly illuminated and unkempt dwelling place but also the neglect and contempt of people entrusted to care for them, or society as a whole. Welty uses a lot of similes like these as the story progresses. William likewise uses figures of speech like personification as he amusingly narrates his experience with the impish Mathilda, the sick child with overprotective parents who are easily swayed by her whims but who care for her well-being. Williams, for instance describes the antagonist as follows: â€Å"The child was fairly eating me up with her cold, steady eyes† (Stuber). There are also symbolisms in each short story.   In â€Å"A Visit of Charity,† the potted plant that Marian brings to the home for the aged is just a thing or gift that is expected of a visitor.   In the same way, the elderly ladies are placed in the home because it is the right thing to do, even if they are not given the genuine warmth and attention they deserve as human beings. In â€Å"The Use of Force,† the parents of the sick child represent a bygone era, when medicine was not yet fully developed as a science and old-fashioned remedies were resorted to.   The doctor may therefore represent the western world’s modern man or â€Å"savior† of those afflicted with illness. In â€Å"A Visit of Charity† by Eudora Welty, the main character desires or concentrates on her own personal advantage.   In contrast, â€Å"The Use of Force† by William Carlos Williams depicts a doctor’s selfless concern to be of help to his patient. In both short fiction stories, the characters interact and engage in dialogue as part of a first-time encounter. The dialogue breathes life to the personalities of the characters, allowing readers to visualize and relate to them better, while also advancing the plot and making the story even more interesting. Both authors lend credibility to the main characters’ views by first establishing their age, gender. task or occupation, and the social class they represent as seen from their mode of dressing and speech. Overall, both William Carlos Williams and Eudora Welty are masters of the short story form who are effectively able to convey important social themes through imagery and characterization, among other elements of short fiction. Works Cited Stuber, Irene. â€Å"The Use of Force by William Carlos Williams (1883-1963).† Classic Short Stories. 1995. 17 July 2008 . Welty, Eudora. â€Å"A Visit of Charity.† Modern Satiric Stories: The Impropriety Principle. Ed. Gregory Fitzgerald. Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1971. 245-246.

Law Enforcement Code of Ethics Essay

The way in which police treat citizens have a ripple effect on community opinions, as these citizens impart their experiences to friends, family, and neighbors. One’s moral principles on right and wrong behavior are a form of discipline. Morals and ethics are often used interchangeably, and everyone has his own value system (Thomson and Wadsworth, 2005). Moreover, the code of ethics is an officer’s behavior of his credibility and validity. The officer must uphold the law regardless of the offender’s identity. According to Sykes (1989), a law enforcement informal code of ethics generally covers several aspects. The most important one being the principle of fairness and justice: An officer must uphold the law regardless of an offender’s race, social status or identity. One must not abuse his powers to take advantage or give special treatment to citizens, which turn out to be the main source of solicitation and acceptance of gratuities (pp. 141-142). In addition, a precinct with a value system empathizing crime control may allocate resources differently from one with a value system promoting community-oriented policing (p. 139). In fact, officers within these two precincts would be rewarded differently, and the formal culture of the agency would encourage different behavior patterns (Thomson and Wadsworth, 2005, p. 140). According to Scheingold (1984), law enforcement typically forms a homogenous social group in a closed social system. This leads to the extreme nature of police (formal ethics) subculture (p. 144). The three distinctive codes: First, the perfect professional, second, guidelines or his principles, and third, mandatory rules that serves as discipline. For example, an oath of duties and the sacred trust of an officer. An individual officer’s code of ethics is more specific to his behavior, whereas a professional code allows discretionary practices and unique issues of that particular profession (Thomson and Wadsworth, pp. 139-140, 2005). One knows that unpleasant experiences with the police affect individual opinions. Ideally, an officer’s decision-making is based on his code of  ethics. However, within many grey areas, the issues of loyalty force and discretion makes the process very difficult. Sykes (1989) states, â€Å"Professional ethics is extremely crucial to the image of law enforcement as a professional† (pp. 141-142). An officer has a responsibility to the whole community in a manner such as will inspire trust and confidence. References Axia College of University of Phoenix. (2005). Chapter 7: Corruption and the Code. Retrieved September 1, 2008, fromAxia College, Week Three reading AXcess, ADJ 235- Ethics and the Administration of JusticeAxia College of University of Phoenix. (2005). Chapter 6: The Ethics of Social Control. Retrieved September 1, 2008, fromAxia College, Week Three reading AXcess, ADJ 235- Ethics and the Administration of Justice

Philosophical Worldview Essay

A philosophical worldview is a complex phenomenon influenced by a number of factors including scientific knowledge and philosophical doctrines, religion and everyday experience of a person. Along with the worldview comes a social system, an accompanying ideological structure. In some instances, the person may not be aware of the extent to which she or he is stepping into a new world—or a new way of grasping the world and understanding oneself influenced by new ideas and ideologies. Nevertheless, the subtlety of the process does not diminish its impact, which is to achieve change toward a specific end. The desired goal is the transformation of the adherent into a committed believer, which means becoming a loyal group member or follower in those instances in which a group is attached to a belief system. Science, logic and religion play a crucial role in the philosophical worldview determining the main priorities and concepts accepted or rejected by an individual. It is possible to say that science stipulates the frames through which we perceive the world. Following David Hume: The identity, which we ascribe to the mind of man, is only a fictitious one, and of a like kind with that which we ascribe to vegetables and animal bodies. It cannot, therefore, have a different origin, but must proceed from a like operation of the imagination upon like objects† (Hume, n. d. ). Science helps humanity to understand natural phenomena and biological changes, evolutionary processes and shifts. Descartes explains that: â€Å"Arithmetic, Geometry, and the other sciences of the same class †¦ contain somewhat that is certain and indubitable† (Descartes, 2005). Science influence the worldview representing a particular way of knowledge and perception of the world and human beings based on historical information, hypotheses and experiments. Science is not a self-contained or self-sustaining activity. The most important it is conducted only in a community that has reached a certain level of intellectual development, which involves and implies social organization, culture, art, and religion, as well as philosophy. Religion can be interpreted as a worldview itself determining the main values and concepts which help a person to interpret the world. The person who begins to think about religion may find himself identifying his particular beliefs with the essence of all religion. His own religious beliefs are vivid and vital to him, especially if his religious training has been consistent and regular, and if his religion is emotionally allied with valued experiences at home, at school, and with friends. Again, if his specific beliefs have become connected with satisfying moments of high inspiration and if he has found these beliefs helpful in time of need, his religion will have so permeated the nooks and crannies of his life that any other â€Å"religion† is a relatively dead thing, something foreign and alien, and, indeed, not really religion. There is only one religion for him. As he tries to evaluate his religion, it will be difficult for him to examine his beliefs impartially and to give adequate weight to those factors in the experience of others which have little meaning to him in terms of his own emotional background. For instance, Descartes gives the following example of the role and influence of religion in the worldview: it is true that when I think only of God (when I look upon myself as coming from God, Fr. ), and turn wholly to him, I discover [in myself] no cause of error or falsity† (Descartes, 2005). In this case, the worldview of a person is determined by his religious beliefs and perception of the world influenced by interpretation of God and his authority. Religion helps to develop a perspective toward life which determines ideas, rituals, and emotions. What happens to religious belief depends on innumerable factors in the life-experience of the believer. What the individual calls his religion is interwoven with experiences which are religiously significant for him (Warburton, 2006). Logic exhibits an ideal of knowledge, namely, a one-possibility consistency derived from established premises. This ideal is demonstrated unusually well in the realm of mathematics and geometry where all conclusions are logically bound to accepted definitions or axioms. This pattern of thought is what many people have in mind when they refer to reason or to its conclusion, rational truth. For Descartes, a logical conclusion in this sense would have a must-be-so character; almost-surely-so would have no more validity than to say that two and two â€Å"almost surely† equal five. One can understand why this conception of logical reason (and of truth) has been held up as the ultimate ideal. When a proof is logically valid, there are no other possible conclusions, and our uncertainty vanishes. Logic influenced the worldview helping to explain, select, organize and interpret information combining it into a meaningful and coherent picture of the world. Reality is a function of the interpretation we assign to our own perceptions and logic. Using three frames, logic, science and religion, people interpret the world and events take place around them; logic, science and religion become lenses through which we determine and perceive the world and its processes. Science, religion and logic allows a person to perceive ideas of others and create a unique worldview and understanding of reality. Our worldview is derived from the science base we bring to the system and the development of that base as we operate within the system. In many ways, religion and logic is both the instrument with which we succeed by making sense out of the world and the limitation on our ability to see greater or different issues that might be critical to our interpretation of the world. All of the readings (Descartes, Hume, Sartre) can challenge and expend the philosophical worldview. All of them present a unique interpretation and explanation of events and philosophical concepts which force a reader to rethink and test his worldviews. For instance, Descartes and Hume can help to perceive certain things that other people do not necessarily notice. They are more likely to see particular characteristics as important. Hume explains: â€Å"’Tis evident, that the identity, which we attribute to the human mind, however perfect we may imagine it to be, is not able to run the several different perceptions into one, and make them lose their characters of distinction and difference, which are essential to them† (Hume, n. . ). Thus, no matter how acute our own perceptual abilities might be, the reality we carry with us is essentially less than the actual event. Sartre’s ideas challenge a worldview forcing a reader to rethink his religious beliefs and ideals applying an existentialist point of view. Most of us have the same kind of experience as we try to grasp the scientist’s account of the world. If we are to understand at all, we have to be satisfied with a harder â€Å"thinkable† conception-that is, one which is consistent with the facts. With the help of the microscope and the telescope, the scientist can check much of his mathematics and â€Å"thinking† about the â€Å"population† of the universe, its nature, and its extension in space and time. But ultimately he has the right to ask our intellect to accept his conception of the physical universe, provided no facts are left out, even if that conception outruns imagination. These readings can help to rethink and reinterpret some ideals and beliefs but they cannot change a philosophical view and perception of reality. These readings represent different historical epochs and are influenced by reality and traditions of these periods. In many cases, philosophical doctrines and concepts differ from modern world and construction of modern reality. The further development of a person’s worldview can be drawn from existentialism. Existentialism addresses itself to what are today called the â€Å"existential† problems of man — the meaning of life, of death, of suffering, to name but these. The relationship of human existence to beings which do not enjoy human existence is transcendent in a double-edged manner. On the one hand human existence is thrown down into the world and is attuned to and utterly subject to the beings in it; in this way the world transcends human existence. On the other hand, human existence is really the â€Å"formative† agent of the world; it transcends the world; the domination which it exercises over things in being is so complete that it actually draws them out of their fundamental hiddenness and endows them with being, that is, with meaning and truth. Existentialism is also clearly indebted to life-philosophy and is in certain ways an expansion of the latter especially in its actualism, its analysis of time, and its criticism of rationalism and natural science (Warburton, 2006). The difficulty does not stem from inadequacy in expression or weakness in logical structure, for work always proceeds in very systematic fashion. The difficulty arises rather from the unusual and strange terminology which he has devised in the hope of providing a language for conveying his thoughts. Therefore the analysis of being as human existence is declared to be the starting point of the investigation. It is the peculiar quality of human existence that it is a being which, in being, is interested in this very being. The understanding of being is in itself an element in the being of human existence, and for this reason human existence is said to be â€Å"ontological. To determine the essence of human existence requires much more than a matter-of-fact answer to the question â€Å"What? † For the â€Å"essence† of human existence, is found in its existence, from which alone it can be understood. Following Sartre [man] â€Å"is nothing. Only afterward will he be something, and he himself will have made what he will be. Thus, there is no human nature, since there is no god to conceive it. Not only is man what he conceives himself to be, but he is also what he wills himself to be† (Sartre 2000, p. 36). In contrast other philosophers decide that they must either accept the biblical account of creation or reject altogether the conception of creation by God. They do not realize that two kinds of assertions are involved and that it is at least possible to maintain that God is creator without holding that he created by specific edict in the order suggested. It may be that the acceptance of evolution should modify only the conception of the way in which God creates the world (Warburton, 2006). The main value to study different philosophies is to expand and challenge ones philosophical ideals, comparing and contrasting different perspectives and philosophical notions. It seems to me important that people should be familiar with the work of different branches of philosophy. It is not, necessarily, that some philosophers are more acute or profound than their scholastic predecessors. It is rather that the individual is unlikely really to get to grips with the thought of the classic scholastics unless he has been brought by the study of philosophy to a genuine appreciation of the problems in these fields. Fields of inquiry has to do not with one set of events which occur in the world but with the nature of all events and of the universe as a whole. The second issue involves the question as to whether the actual steps in the development of man were those indicated. Different philosophies help to expend the knowledge and rethink philosophical ideals and truths. Understanding different perspectives is a crucial element of universal understanding because it is impossible to arrive at a position of knowledge from a single perspective. Understanding different perspectives is a good thing because it allows a person to build his own worldview based on contrasting elements and concepts, values and views. It does not mean that a person should accept these perspectives but he should understand the different and value of each of them. The essential structure of understanding secures an existential grasp of the range of the capacity for being, and it is that aspect of human existence in which worldview is its potentiality. To snatch ourselves back again out of the grip of man is to make a choice, to commit ourselves spontaneously to the possibility of being arising from the most intimate self. The worldview is determined by science and religion and the discoveries of the philosophers made during a particular period of time. Accepting these restraints, the person secures to himself the protection given by the community of others who accept the same canons of philosophy, religion logic and scientific knowledge.

Efficient Market Hypothesis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Efficient Market Hypothesis - Essay Example While academics point to a large body of evidence in support of EMH, an equal amount of disagreement also exists. For example, investors such as Warren Buffett have consistently beaten the market over long periods of time, which by definition is impossibility according to the EMH. Critics of the EMH also point to events such as the 1987 stock market crash (when the DJIA fell by over 20% in a single day) as evidence that stock prices can seriously deviate from their fair values. (Investopedia, 2006, para.2) Wikipedia defines the Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) similar way. An assertion exists that financial markets are "efficient", or that prices on traded assets, e.g. stocks, bonds, or property, already reflect all known information and therefore are accurate in the sense that they reflect the collective beliefs of all investors about future prospects. The Efficient Market Hypothesis implies that it is not possible to consistently outperform the market - appropriately adjusted for risk - by using any information that the market already knows, except through luck or obtaining and trading on inside information. It further suggests that the future flow of news (that which will determine future stock prices) is random and unknowable in the present. The EMH is the central part of Efficient Market Theory (EMT). (Wikipedia: Efficient market hypothesis, 2006, para.1)Efficient Market Theory is a field of economics, which seeks to explain the workings of capital markets such as the stock market.... The EMH is the central part of Efficient Market Theory (EMT). (Wikipedia: Efficient market hypothesis, 2006, para.1) Efficient Market Theory is a field of economics, which seeks to explain the workings of capital markets such as the stock market. According to University of Chicago economist Eugene Fama, the price of a stock reflects a balanced rational assessment of its true underlying value (i.e., rational expectations); its price will have fully and accurately discounted (taken account of) all available information or news. The theory assumes several things including perfect information, instantaneous receipt of news, and a marketplace with many small participants (rather than one or more large ones with the power to influence prices). The theory also assumes that news arises randomly in the future (otherwise the non-randomness would be analyzed, forecast and incorporated within prices already). The theory predicts that the movements of stock prices will approximate stochastic processes, and that technical analysis and statistical forecasting will most likely be fruitless. (Wikipedia: Efficient market theory, 2006, para.1-2) It is a common misconception that EMH requires that investors behave rationally. This is not in fact the case. EMH allows that when faced with new information, some investors may overreact and some may under react. All that is required by the EMH is that investors' reactions be random enough that the net effect on market prices cannot be reliably exploited to make an abnormal profit. Under EMH, the market may, in fact, behave irrationally for a long period of time. Crashes, bubbles and depressions are all consistent with efficient market